Liability for oil pollution and collisionsPDF电子书下载

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APPENDICES 3

PART 1 OWNERSHIP 3

Chapter 1： The concept of ownership 3

In general 3

Kinds of ownership 4

Chapter 2： Registration 5

History of ship registration 5

The legal concept of ship registration 5

Conditions for registration 7

Kinds of registration law 8

Chapter 3： Maritime flag 10

History 10

Maritime flag and state responsibility 11

（a） How state responsibility arises 11

（b） The principles of state responsibility 12

（i） The sovereign equality of states 12

（ii） Doctrine of the open sea 13

（iii） Sovereign immunity 13

（c） Aspects of state responsibility 13

（d） Exceptions to the exclusivity of flag-state jurisdiction 15

（i） Right of visit 15

（ii） Slave trade 15

（iii） Piracy 16

（iv） Unauthorised broadcasting 16

（v） Hot pursuit 16

（vi） Pollution 17

（vii） Exceptional measures 19

（viii） Rights under treaty 19

（e） Ships of uncertain nationality 20

Chapter 4： Relevant international law 22

Introduction 22

Granting of nationality 22

（a） The concept of genuine link 23

（b） Flags of convenience 31

（i） In general 31

（ii） Development of flags of convenience 33

（iii） Problems arising from flags of convenience 36

（iv） Opposition to flags of convenience 38

Safety 38

Labour 40

Economic aspect 47

（v） Campaigning against flags of convenience 49

Chapter 5： The United Nations Convention on Conditions for Registration of Ships 1986（1986 UN Convention） 51

Introduction 51

The Convention 52

The provisions of the Convention 52

（a） The genuine link 55

（b） Civil and third party responsibility 58

（c） Transparency 59

（d） Protection of the interests of labour-supplying countries 60

（e） Measures to minimise adverse economic effects 61

Bareboat charter registration 62

Chapter 6： Nationality 65

Registration of ships in the United Kingdom 66

Conditions for special categories of ships 69

（a） Government-owned tonnage 70

（b） International organisations 70

The mechanics of registration 71

Chapter 7： Definition of ownership under contracts of carriage by sea 74

In general 74

Types of charterparties 75

（a） Voyage charterparty 75

（b） Time charterparty 76

（c） Demise charterparty 78

The identity of the carrier under bills of lading 79

The Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1992 83

（a） The need for reform 83

（b） Changes under the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1992 86

PART 2 COLLISION 91

Chapter 8： Introduction to the law of collision 91

Historical background 91

Development of collision law in the English Admiralty 93

（a） 1530-1789 93

（b） 1789-1838 93

（c） 1838-1911 94

（d） The Collision Regulations 95

Chapter 9： Basis of collision liability 98

Definition of collision 98

The concept of liability for collision 99

（a） Development of specific features in collision liability 99

（b） Establishing fault in collision cases 100

（i） Classification of fault 101

Faults separated 101

Faults mixed 102

Faults interlocked 103

（ii） Types of collision 103

Inevitable accident 103

Agony of the moment 105

One vessel is to blame 106

Both vessels are to blame and degree of fault can be apportioned 106

Damage to one vessel by negligence of two other vessels 106

Both vessels are to blame but the degree of fault cannot be determined 106

Apportionment of liability in collision cases 106

（a） The Brussels Convention of 1910 106

（b） The British Maritime Conventions Act of 1911 107

（c） Principles of apportionment of liability under the 1911 Act 108

（i） Division of damages 111

Loss of or damage to ships and cargo 111

Claims for loss of life or personal injury 114

Contribution between ships at fault 115

Limitation of actions 116

（ii） Difficulties in practice in apportionment of liability 116

（d） The Lisbon Rules 118

（i） Introduction 118

（ii） The lettered rules 120

（iii） The numbered rules 120

Chapter 10： Insurance aspects 123

General 123

History of collision liability cover 123

P&I collision cover 124

（a） General 124

（b） History of the collision liability clause in relation to P&I collision cover 124

（i） Establishment of Protection Clubs 124

Shipowners’ liabilities at the time of establishment of Protection Clubs 125

Liability of shipowners for loss of or damage to cargo carried by them and for collision damage 125

Extension of the limited liability system for loss of life of or personal injury to passengers （Merchant Shipping Act 1854） 125

（ii） Liability for collision damage at the time of establishment of the first Protection Club and the 1824 Collision Clause 127

Assessment of the 1824 Clause 128

Cargo on the insured vessel 128

Loss of life and personal injury 128

Legal costs 129

Removal of wreck expenses and shipowners’ liability for damage done to harbour， etc 129

The first Protection Club 130

Changes in the 1824 Collision Clause 131

Comparison between the Original Lloyd’s Clause and the 1824 Collision Clause 132

（iii） Indemnity Clubs 132

The Institute Collision Clause of 1888 133

（iv） Present P&I cover for collision liabilities 135

General 135

The scope of the club cover （Rules of the Britannia Steam Ship Mutual Insurance Association Ltd.） 136

Rule 19（9）： liabilities arising from collisions 136

Collision Clause （A） 136

One-fourth of collision liability 136

Excess collision liabilities （B） 137

Excess liability cover 137

Collision liability to cargo （C） 138

Collision liability to cargo carried in an entered ship—Rule 19（17） 138

Injury and death （D） 139

Officers and crew—Rule 19（1） 140

Passengers and others on board/near the ship—Rules 19（2）， 19（3）， 19（4） 140

Property damage （E） 140

Damage to property—Rule 19（10） 140

Non-contact damage to ships （F） 140

Non-contact damage to ships—Rule 19（11） 140

Pollution （G） 141

Pollution—Rule 19（12） 141

Wreck removal （H） 141

Removal of wreck—Rule 19（13） 141

Both to blame collision clause 142

Sister-ship clause 143

Duty to insure the ship for her full value and on standard terms 144

The hull market cover 145

（a） Institute Collision Liability Clause 145

（b） Analysis of the Collision Liability Clause 146

（i） General 146

（ii） Requirements under the collision liability clause 147

“Paid by the Assured” 147

“By way of damages” 149

“Collision” 150

“Vessel” 150

Exclusions 152

（iii） Measure of indemnity under the Institute Collision Liability Clause 153

PART 3 OIL POLLUTION 159

Chapter 11： Introduction 159

Chapter 12： Oil pollution from ships and the public international law approach 161

Marine environmental law 161

Concepts underlying the oil pollution system 162

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 164

（a） The regulatory provisions 165

（b） The enforcement provisions 168

（c） Provisions on state responsibility 170

Chapter 13： Marine pollution conventions： global 171

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil （OILPOL 1954） 171

International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution 1969 （Intervention Convention 1969） 174

International Convention on the Dumping of Wastes at Sea 1972 （LDC 1972） 177

MARPOL 73/78 181

（a） Definitions 182

（b） Oil pollution regulations 183

（i） Annex Ⅰ 183

（ii） Annex Ⅱ 185

（iii） Annex Ⅲ 186

（iv） Annex Ⅳ 186

（v） Annex Ⅴ 187

（c） The Impact of MARPOL 73/78 187

International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness Response and Co- operation 1990 （OPRC） 189

The International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea 1996 （HNS Convention） 191

Chapter 14： Regional marine pollution conventions and the UNEP Regional Seas Programme 195

Agreement for Co-operation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil 1969 （the 1969 and 1983 Bonn Agreements） 195

Agreement between Denmark， Finland， Norway and Sweden Concerning Co- operation in Measures to deal with Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1971 （the 1971 Copenhagen Agreement） 197

Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft 1972 （Oslo Dumping Convention） 197

Convention on the Protection of the Environment between Denmark， Finland， Norway and Sweden 1974 （Stockholm Convention） 199

The Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area 1974 and the Helsinki Convention 1992 （Helsinki Convention） 199

The UNEP Regional Seas Programme and Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution 1976 （Barcelona Convention） 200

The Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution 1978 and the Protocol thereto Concerning Co- operation in Combating Pollution （Kuwait Convention） 202

Convention for Co-operation in the Protection of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region 1981 （Abidjan Conven- tion） 203

Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region 1981 （Jamaica Convention） 203

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pacific 1981 （Lima Convention） 204

Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Marine Environment of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden 1982 （Jeddah Convention） 204

Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean 1983 （Cartagena Convention） 205

Convention for the Protection， Management and Development of the Marine Environment of the East African Region 1985 （Nairobi Convention） 205

Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region 1986 （Noumea Convention） 205

Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution 1992 （Bucharest Convention） 206

Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty 1991 （Madrid Environmental Protocol） 206

The North West Pacific Agreement 1994 208

The South Asian Seas Agreement 1995 208

Chapter 15： Liability and compensation for marine pollution 210

In general 210

The International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 1969（1969 CLC） 211

（a） Introduction 211

（b） Main principles of the 1969 CLC 212

（i） The scope of the Convention 212

（ii） Pollutants 213

（iii） Damages 213

（iv） Liability 214

（v） Compulsory insurance 215

（vi） Exemptions from liability 217

（vii） Limitation of liability 217

The International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage 1971 （1971 FC） 219

（a） Introduction 219

（b） Main principles of the 1971 FC 220

（i） The scope of the Convention 220

（ii） Supplementary compensation 220

（iii） Compensation under Article 4 221

1984 Protocols to the Civil Liability and Fund Conventions 223

The Voluntary Oil Spill Compensation Schemes 226

（a） TOVALOP 226

（i） In general 226

（ii） Limits of financial responsibility 227

（iii） Submission of claims 228

（b） CRISTAL 228

（i） In general 228

（ii） Limits of financial responsibility 230

（iii） Submission of claims 230

Interaction between the voluntary and legal regimes 230

The termination of TOVALOP and CRISTAL 232

The 1992 Protocols to the Civil Liability and Fund Conventions 233

（a） Entry into force 234

（b） Main amendments 236

The Merchant Shipping Act 1995 and the Merchant Shipping and Maritime Security Act 1997 238

The IOPC Fund and the Admissibility of Claims 242

（a） In general 242

（b） Financing the IOPC Fund 242

（c） Admissibility of claims 243

（i） Definition of pollution damage 244

（ii） Damage to the marine environment 247

（iii） P&I clubs and admissibility of claims 248

（d） Settlement of claims in the IOPC Fund 248

（i） General criteria 248

（ii） Clean-up operations and property damage 250

（iii） Consequential loss and pure economic loss 250

（iv） Environmental damage 252

CMI guidelines on oil pollution damage 255

Chapter 16： The US Oil Pollution Act of 1990 256

Introduction 256

Pre-existing law 257

（a） The Federal Water Pollution Control Act 257

（b） Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments of 1978 259

（c） Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorisation Act 260

（d） Deepwater Port Act 260

The legislative starting point 260

A Review of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 （OPA） 264

（a） Liability 264

（i） In general 264

（ii） Limits of liability 266

（iii） Defences to liability 267

（b） Damages 268

（c） Financial responsibility 270

（d） Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund 272

（e） Double hull requirement 275

（f） Prevention， removal and other provisions 277

（g） Penalties 279

（i） Criminal penalties and immunity 279

（ii） Administrative and civil penalties 280

（h） Reactions to OPA 281

（i） Relationship with other laws 281

（ii） Industry’s concern 283

（iii） Insurance 285

Surety bonds 295

Self-insurance 295

Financial guarantees 295

Other evidence of financial responsibility 296

PART 4 LIMITATION OF LIABILITY 299

Chapter 17： The origins of limitation of shipowners’ liability 299

Introduction 299

The development of limitation 299

Chapter 18： International variations of limitation of liability 301

Limitation of liability for property claims 301

（a） The abandonment and maritime lien systems 301

（b） The American system 302

（c） The British tonnage system 303

（d） The 1957 Limitation Convention 303

（e） The Belgian system of 1908 303

（f） The 1924 Limitation Convention 303

（g） Other option systems 304

Limitation of liability for personal claims 304

Chapter 19： British concepts of limitation of liability 305

Historical background 305

（a） Common carrier’s liability at common law 305

（b） Sea carrier’s liability at common law 306

（c） Common law limitations of liability 307

（i） Excepted perils 307

（ii） Contractual limitation of liability 309

（iii） Burden of proof 313

Developments under British law 313

The 1957 Limitation Convention： Merchant Shipping Act 1894 316

（a） Persons entitled to protection 316

（b） Types of ships entitled to limitation 317

（c） Claims subject to limitation 319

（i） Incidents on board 320

（ii） Incidents occurring elsewhere than on board the vessel 321

（d） Duties of a shipowner with regard to limitation of liability 323

（i） Duty to equip the ship 323

（ii） Navigational matters 326

（e） Exclusion of liability 328

（i） Fire 328

（ii） Undeclared valuables 329

（f） Actual fault or privity 329

（i） In general 329

（ii） The alter ego problem 333

（g） Limitation of liability for master or crew members 336

（h） Limitation actions 338

（i） Security and release from arrest 339

（ii） The Limitation Fund 340

Distinct and separate occasions 340

Constitution of the limitation fund 341

Amount of limitation 343

（i） Dock owners， harbour and pilotage authorities 344

（i） Tug and tow situations 346

Tug and tow in the same ownership 346

Tug and tow in different ownership 348

（j） Wreck raising expenses 349

（k） Contracting out 350

Chapter 20： The Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims 1976 351

In general 351

（a） Introduction 351

（b） The need for changes 352

Analysis of the 1976 Convention 354

（a） Persons entitled to limit their liability 354

（b） Claims subject to limitation 355

（c） Claims excepted from limitation 357

（d） Loss of right to limit liability 358

（i） Conduct barring limitation 358

（ii） Burden of proof 359

（e） Counterclaims 359

（f） The amount of limitation 361

（i） In general 361

（ii） The limitation unit 362

（iii） The extent of the limit 363

Claims for loss of life or personal injury of passengers 364

Claims for loss of life or personal injury of persons other than passengers 364

Other claims 365

（iv） The limit for passenger claims 366

（g） Distinct occasion and aggregation of claims 367

（h） The limitation fund 368

（i） Limitation of liability without constitution of a limitation fund 368

（ii） Constitution of the fund 369

（iii） Distribution of the fund 370

（i） Bar to other actions 371

Exclusions and reservations 372

Chapter 21： Conflicts of law 373

Chapter 22： The insurance viewpoint 377

Limitation of liability and insurance relation 377

The current law 378

Liability insurer under the 1976 Convention 379

Chapter 23： The exclusion clauses 381

PART 5 JURISDICTION OVER THE SEA AND SHIPS 385

Chapter 24： The law of the sea 385

Historical development of the law of the sea 385

Sources of the law of the sea 386

（a） The 1958 Geneva Conventions 386

（b） The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 387

（c） Customary law 388

Current status of the law of the sea 388

（a） Current status of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 388

（b） Status of the states under the Law of the Sea Convention 389

（i） States that ratify the Convention 389

（ii） States that accede to only part of the Convention 390

（iii） The Law of the Sea Convention and third states 390

（c） The jurisdictional zones 392

（i） In general 392

（ii） Internal waters 392

Baselines 393

Exercise of sovereignty and the right of access to ports and internal waters 393

Jurisdiction in internal waters 394

（iii） The territorial sea 395

The width of the territorial sea 395

The significance of the outer limit of the territorial sea 397

The juridical nature of the territorial sea 397

Criminal and civil jurisdiction over foreign ships 398

（iv） The contiguous zone 400

In general 400

Juridical nature of the contiguous zone 400

（v） The exclusive economic zone （EEZ） 401

In general 401

Sui generis nature of the EEZ 402

（vi） The continental shelf 403

（vii） The high seas 405

Definition 405

Jurisdiction on the high seas 405

（viii） Miscellaneous matters 407

International straits 407

Archipelagos 409

Islands 410

Chapter 25： Admiralty jurisdiction 411

In general 411

The framework of the Supreme Court Act 1981 412

Section 20（1） （A） of the Supreme Court Act 412

Oil pollution 414

Exercise of jurisdiction 416

（a） In general 416

（b） Availability of the action in rem 417

（i） The sister-ship issue 418

（ii） Beneficial ownership and the corporate veil 421

（iii） The Mareva injunction 424

Chapter 26： Restrictions on the exercise of jurisdiction 427

Jurisdictional agreements 427

（a） Scope of the Rome Convention 428

（b） Agreement on choice of law 429

（c） Limitations on freedom of choice 430

（d） Applicable law in the absence of choice 434

（e） Contracts for the carriage of goods by sea 436

（f） Floating choice of law clauses 437

Arbitration agreements 440

（a） Incorporation of arbitration clauses into charterparty bills of lading 440

（b） Stay of proceedings under arbitration 443

The appropriate forum （forum conveniens） 443

Chapter 27： The Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982 445

Application to Admiralty actions in rem 445

Special jurisdiction 448

Jurisdiction under international conventions 450

（a） The 1952 Arrest Convention 450

（b） The 1952 Collision Convention 451

（c） The 1992 Oil Pollution Conventions 451

Stay of proceedings 451

Collision actions and the 1982 Act 452

APPENDIX Ⅰ： Total losses by registration 455

APPENDIX Ⅱ： Total losses by registration and shiptype category 459

APPENDIX Ⅲ： Calendar of major oil spill incidents and international response 463

APPENDIX Ⅳ： Largest tanker spills 469

APPENDIX Ⅴ： Contracting states to the 1969 CLC and 1971 FC 473

APPENDIX Ⅵ： States Party to the 1992 Protocols to the CLC and Fund Conventions 481

APPENDIX Ⅶ： 1992 Civil Liability Convention 487

APPENDIX Ⅷ： 1992 Fund Convention 501

APPENDIX Ⅸ： The Britannia P&I Club： Financial responsibility clause in respect of oil pollution 523

APPENDIX Ⅹ： States parties to regional and bilateral agreements 527

APPENDIX ⅩⅠ： Status of Conventions 537

Bibliography 545

Index 553

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