EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH FOURTH EDITIONPDF电子书下载

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PART Ⅰ： INTRODUCTION 1

1 Introduction to Educational Research 2

Why Study Educational Research？ 4

Areas of Educational Research 5

Examples of Educational Research 7

General Kinds of Research 9

Basic and Applied Research 9

Evaluation Research 10

Action Research 11

Orientational Research 12

Sources of Knowledge 12

Experience 13

Reasoning 13

The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation 14

Dynamics of Science 15

Basic Assumptions of Science 15

Scientific Methods 17

Theory 18

The Principle of Evidence 20

Objectives of Educational Research 21

Overview of Book 25

Summary 25

Key Terms 26

Discussion Questions 26

Research Exercises 26

Action Research Journaling 27

Relevant Internet Sites 27

Recommended Reading 28

2 Quantitative， Qualitative， and Mixed Research 29

Characteristics of the Three Research Paradigms 33

Quantitative Research Methods： Experimental and Nonexperimental Research 38

Variables 38

Experimental Research 41

Nonexperimental Research 42

Qualitative Research Methods 48

Phenomenology 48

Ethnography 48

Case Study Research 49

Grounded Theory 49

Historical Research 50

Mixed Research （or Mixed Methods Research） 50

The Advantages of Mixed Research 51

Our Research Typology 52

Summary 53

Key Terms 53

Discussion Questions 54

Research Exercises 54

Action Research Journaling 55

Relevant Internet Sites 55

Recommended Reading 56

PART Ⅱ： PLANNING THE RESEARCH STUDY 57

3 How to Review the Literature and Develop Research Questions 58

Sources of Research Ideas 60

Everyday Life 60

Practical Issues 60

Past Research 61

Theory 62

Ideas That Can’t Be Resolved Through Empirical Research 63

Review of the Literature 64

Literature Review for Quantitative Research Studies 64

Literature Review for Qualitative Research Studies 65

Sources of Information 66

Conducting the Literature Search 67

Using Databases 67

Using the Public Internet 68

Feasibility of the Study 71

Statement of the Research Problem 71

Stating a Quantitative Research Problem 71

Stating a Qualitative Research Problem 72

Statement of the Purpose of the Study 73

Statement of Purpose in a Quantitative Study 73

Statement of Purpose in a Qualitative Study 73

Statement of Research Questions 74

Statement of a Quantitative Research Question 74

Statement of a Qualitative Research Question 76

Formulating Hypotheses 76

Consumer Use of the Literature 78

Summary 82

Key Terms 83

Discussion Questions 83

Research Exercises 83

Action Research Journaling 83

Relevant Internet Sites 84

Recommended Reading 84

4 How to Write a Research Proposal 85

Framework of the Research Proposal 87

Strategies for Writing Each Section of the Research Proposal 87

Introduction 87

Method 89

Research Participants 90

Design 90

Apparatus and/or Instruments 91

Procedure 92

Data Analysis 93

Abstract 93

Summary 94

Key Terms 95

Discussion Questions 95

Research Exercise 95

Action Research Journaling 95

Relevant Internet Sites 95

Recommended Reading 96

5 Research Ethics 97

What Are Research Ethics？ 99

Ethical Concerns 100

Relationship Between Society and Science 100

Professional Issues 101

Treatment of Research Participants 103

Ethical Guidelines for Research With Humans 106

Informed Consent 107

Informed Consent and Minors as Research Participants 110

Passive Versus Active Consent 112

Additional Consent 113

Deception 114

Freedom to Withdraw 115

Protection From Mental and Physical Harm 115

Confidentiality， Anonymity， and the Concept of Privacy 116

Institutional Review Board 117

Ethical Issues in Electronic Research 122

Informed Consent and Internet Research 122

Privacy and Internet Research 122

Debriefing and Internet Research 123

Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report 123

Authorship 124

Writing the Research Report 124

Summary 125

Key Terms 127

Discussion Questions 127

Research Exercises 127

Action Research Journaling 128

Relevant Internet Sites 128

Recommended Reading 128

PART Ⅲ： FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH 129

6 Standardized Measurement and Assessment 130

Defining Measurement 132

Scales of Measurement 132

Nominal Scale 133

Ordinal Scale 133

Interval Scale 134

Ratio Scale 135

Assumptions Underlying Testing and Assessment 135

Identifying a Good Test or Assessment Procedure 137

Overview of Reliability and Validity 137

Reliability 138

Validity 143

Using Reliability and Validity Information 149

Educational and Psychological Tests 150

Intelligence Tests 150

Personality Tests 151

Educational Assessment Tests 152

Sources of Information About Tests 155

Summary 156

Key Terms 157

Discussion Questions 157

Research Exercises 158

Exercise Sheet 158

Action Research Journaling 159

Relevant Internet Sites 159

Recommended Reading 159

Notes 160

7 How to Construct a Questionnaire 161

What Is a Questionnaire？ 162

Principles of Questionnaire Construction 163

Principle 1.Make sure the questionnaire items match your research objectives 165

Principle 2.Understand your research participants 165

Principle 3.Use natural and familiar language 165

Principle 4.Write items that are clear， precise， and relatively short 166

Principle 5.Do not use “leading” or “loaded” questions 166

Principle 6.Avoid double-barreled questions 168

Principle 7.Avoid double negatives 168

Principle 8.Determine whether an open-ended or a closed-ended question is needed 169

Principle 9.Use mutually exclusive and exhaustive response categories for closed-ended questions 170

Principle 10.Consider the different types of response categories available for closed-ended questionnaire items 172

Principle 11.Use multiple items to measure abstract constructs 178

Principle 12.Consider using multiple methods when measuring abstract constructs 179

Principle 13.Use caution if you reverse the wording in some of the items to prevent response sets in multi-item scales 179

Principle 14.Develop a questionnaire that is properly organized and easy for the participant to use 180

Principle 15.Always pilot test your questionnaire 183

Putting It All Together 184

Summary 190

Key Terms 190

Research Exercises 190

Action Research Journaling 191

Relevant Internet Sites 191

Recommended Reading 192

Notes 192

8 Methods of Data Collection 193

Tests 197

Questionnaires 197

Interviews 198

Quantitative Interviews 199

Qualitative Interviews 202

Focus Groups 204

Observation 206

Quantitative Observation 206

Qualitative Observation 207

Visual Data 211

Secondary or Existing Data 212

Summary 213

Key Terms 213

Discussion Questions 213

Research Exercises 214

Action Research Journaling 214

Relevant Internet Site 214

Recommended Reading 214

9 Sampling in Quantitative， Qualitative， and Mixed Research 215

Terminology Used in Sampling 217

Random Sampling Techniques 219

Simple Random Sampling 219

Systematic Sampling 223

Stratified Random Sampling 225

Cluster Random Sampling 228

Nonrandom Sampling Techniques 230

Convenience Sampling 230

Quota Sampling 230

Purposive Sampling 231

Snowball Sampling 231

Random Selection and Random Assignment 232

Determining the Sample Size When Random Sampling Is Used 233

Sampling in Qualitative Research 235

Sampling in Mixed Research 238

Summary 239

Key Terms 240

Discussion Questions 240

Research Exercises 241

Action Research Journaling 241

Relevant Internet Sites 241

Recommended Reading 242

Notes 242

10 Validity of Research Results in Quantitative，Qualitative， and Mixed Research 243

Validity Issues in the Design of Quantitative Research 245

Internal Validity 247

Two Major Types of Causal Relationships 247

Criteria for Inferring Causation 248

Threats to Internal Validity in Single-Group Designs 250

Threats to Internal Validity in Multigroup Designs 253

External Validity 256

Population Validity 257

Ecological Validity 259

Temporal Validity 260

Treatment Variation Validity 260

Outcome Validity 260

Construct Validity 261

Operationalism 261

Statistical Conclusion Validity 263

Research Validity （or “Trustworthiness”） in Qualitative Research 264

Descriptive Validity 265

Interpretive Validity 265

Theoretical Validity 267

Internal Validity 268

External Validity 270

Research Validity （or “Legitimation”） in Mixed Research 273

Summary 276

Key Terms 277

Discussion Questions 278

Research Exercises 278

Action Research Journaling 279

Relevant Internet Sites 279

Recommended Reading 279

Notes 280

PART Ⅳ： SELECTING A RESEARCH METHOD 281

11 Experimental Research 282

The Experiment 284

Experimental Research Settings 284

Field Experiment 285

Laboratory Experiment 285

Internet Experiment 285

Independent Variable Manipulation 286

Ways to Manipulate an Independent Variable 286

Control of Confounding Variables 287

Random Assignment 288

Matching 290

Holding the Extraneous Variable Constant 292

Building the Extraneous Variable Into the Research Design 292

Analysis of Covariance 293

Counterbalancing 293

Experimental Research Designs 296

Weak Experimental Research Designs 296

Strong Experimental Research Designs 300

Factorial Designs 306

Repeated-Measures Designs 310

Factorial Designs Based on a Mixed Model 312

Summary 313

Key Terms 314

Discussion Questions 315

Research Exercises 315

Action Research Journaling 316

Relevant Internet Sites 316

Recommended Reading 316

Notes 316

12 Quasi-Experimental and Single-Case Designs 317

Quasi-Experimental Research Designs 319

Nonequivalent Comparison-Group Design 320

Interrupted Time-Series Design 324

Regression-Discontinuity Design 328

Single-Case Experimental Designs 330

A-B-A and A-B-A-B Designs 331

Multiple-Baseline Design 334

Changing-Criterion Design 335

Methodological Considerations in Using Single-Case Designs 338

Summary 339

Key Terms 340

Discussion Questions 340

Research Exercises 341

Action Research Journaling 341

Relevant Internet Sites 341

Recommended Reading 342

13 Nonexperimental Quantitative Research 343

Steps in Nonexperimental Research 346

Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research 346

Simple Cases of Causal-Comparative and Correlational Research 347

Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships 350

Applying the Three Required Conditions for Causation in Nonexperimental Research 351

Techniques of Control in Nonexperimental Research （i.e.， How to Design Strong Nonexperimental Research） 355

Matching 355

Holding the Extraneous Variable Constant 357

Statistical Control 357

Interlude （The Study of Causal Relationships in Epidemiology） 359

Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective 360

The Time Dimension in Nonexperimental Research 361

Cross-Sectional Research 361

Longitudinal Research 362

Retrospective Research 365

The Research Objective Dimension in Nonexperimental Research 365

Descriptive Nonexperimental Research 366

Predictive Nonexperimental Research 367

Explanatory Nonexperimental Research 368

Summary 372

Key Terms 372

Discussion Questions 372

Research Exercises 373

Action Research Journaling 373

Relevant Internet Sites 374

Recommended Reading 374

Notes 374

14 Qualitative Research 375

Phenomenology 383

Examples of Phenomenology 384

Types of Phenomenology 385

Data Collection， Analysis， and Report Writing 386

Ethnography 389

The Idea of Culture 389

Examples of Ethnographic Research 390

Types of Ethnographic Research 391

Data Collection， Analysis， and Report Writing 392

Case Study Research 395

What Is a Case？ 395

Types of Case Study Research Designs 396

Data Collection， Analysis， and Report Writing 398

Grounded Theory 399

Characteristics of a Grounded Theory 400

Example of a Grounded Theory 401

Data Collection， Analysis， and Report Writing 402

Summary 405

Key Terms 406

Discussion Questions 406

Research Exercises 406

Exercise Sheet 407

Action Research Journaling 407

Relevant Internet Sites 408

Recommended Reading 408

Notes 408

15 Historical Research 409

What Is Historical Research？ 411

Significance of Historical Research 411

Historical Research Methodology 413

Identification of the Research Topic and Formulation of the Research Problem or Question 414

Data Collection or Literature Review 415

Documents and Other Written Records 415

Photographs 416

Relics 416

Oral Histories 416

How to Locate Historical Information 417

Primary Versus Secondary Sources 418

Evaluation of Historical Sources 418

External Criticism 419

Internal Criticism 419

Data Synthesis and Report Preparation 421

Summary 423

Key Terms 424

Discussion Questions 424

Research Exercises 425

Action Research Journaling 425

Relevant Internet Sites 425

Recommended Reading 426

16 Mixed Research 427

The Research Continuum 433

Types of Mixed Research Designs 434

Stages of the Mixed Research Process 437

Step 1.Determine whether a mixed design is appropriate. 437

Step 2.Determine the rationale for using a mixed design. 439

Step 3.Select or construct the mixed research design and mixed sampling design. 440

Step 4.Collect the data. 441

Step 5.Analyze the data. 441

Step 6.Continually validate the data. 442

Step 7.Continually interpret the data and findings. 442

Step 8.Write the research report. 443

Limitations of Mixed Research 444

Summary 445

Key Terms 446

Discussion Questions 446

Research Exercises 446

Action Research Journaling 447

Relevant Internet Sites 447

Recommended Reading 447

PART Ⅴ： ANALYZING THE DATA 449

17 Descriptive Statistics 450

Descriptive Statistics 452

Frequency Distributions 453

Graphic Representations of Data 455

Bar Graphs 455

Histograms 455

Line Graphs 455

Scatter Plots 457

Measures of Central Tendency 458

Mode 458

Median 459

Mean 460

A Comparison of the Mean， Median， and Mode 460

Measures of Variability 463

Range 464

Variance and Standard Deviation 464

Standard Deviation and the Normal Distribution 465

Measures of Relative Standing 466

Percentile Ranks 467

z Scores 468

Examining Relationships Among Variables 470

Contingency Tables 470

Regression Analysis 472

Summary 476

Key Terms 476

Discussion Questions 476

Research Exercises 477

Action Research Journaling 477

Relevant Internet Sites 478

Recommended Reading 478

Notes 478

18 Inferential Statistics 479

Sampling Distributions 482

Sampling Distribution of the Mean 484

Estimation 486

Point Estimation 486

Interval Estimation 487

Hypothesis Testing 489

Null and Alternative Hypotheses 490

Directional Alternative Hypotheses 493

Examining the Probability Value and Making a Decision 494

The Hypothesis -Testing Decision Matrix 499

Controlling the Risk of Errors 500

Hypothesis Testing in Practice 502

t Test for Independent Samples 503

One-Way Analysis of Variance 504

Post Hoc Tests in Analysis of Variance 505

t Test for Correlation Coefficients 506

t Test for Regression Coefficients 507

Chi-Square Test for Contingency Tables 508

Other Significance Tests 509

Summary 510

Key Terms 511

Discussion Questions 511

Research Exercises 512

Exercise Sheet 513

Action Research Journaling 513

Relevant Internet Sites 513

Recommended Reading 514

Notes 514

19 Data Analysis in Qualitative and Mixed Research 515

Interim Analysis 517

Memoing 518

Analysis of Visual Data 518

Data Entry and Storage 520

Segmenting， Coding， and Developing Category Systems 520

Inductive and A Priori Codes 525

Co-Occurring and Facesheet Codes 526

Enumeration 528

Creating Hierarchical Category Systems 528

Identifying Relationships Among Categories 531

Drawing Diagrams 534

Corroborating and Validating Results 536

Computer Programs for Qualitative Data Analysis 536

Data Analysis in Mixed Research 538

Mixed Analysis Matrix 538

Analytical Procedures in Mixed Data Analysis 541

Summary 542

Key Terms 542

Discussion Questions 542

Research Exercise 543

Exercise Sheet 544

Action Research Journaling 544

Relevant Internet Sites 544

Recommended Reading 545

Notes 545

PART Ⅵ： WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT 547

20 How to Prepare a Research Report and Use APA Style Guidelines 548

General Principles Related to Writing the Research Report 549

Language 550

Editorial Style 552

Reference List 556

Typing 557

Writing an APA-Style Quantitative Research Report 557

Title Page 557

Abstract 558

Introduction 558

Method 558

Results 559

Discussion 560

References 560

Footnotes 560

Tables 561

Figures 562

Example of an APA-Style Manuscript 562

Writing Qualitative Research Reports 574

Writing Mixed Research Reports 577

Key Term 578

Discussion Questions 578

Research Exercises 578

Action Research Journaling 579

Relevant Internet Sites 579

Recommended Reading 580

Note 580

Glossary 581

References 598

Index 609

About the Authors 621

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